新东方作文背诵
A painter hangs his or her finished pictures on a wall, and everyone
can see it. A composer writes a work, but no one can hear it until it
is performed. Professional singers and players have great
responsibilities, for the composer is utterly dependent on them. A
student of music needs as long and as arduous a training to become a
performer as a medical student needs to become a doctor. Most training
is concerned with technique, for musicians have to have the muscular
proficiency of an athlete or a ballet dancer. Singers practice
breathing every day, as their vocal chords would be inadequate without
controlled muscular support. String players practice moving the
fingers of the left hand up and down, while drawing the bow to and fro
with the right arm—two entirely different movements.
Singers and instruments have to be able to get every note perfectly in
tune. Pianists are spared this particular anxiety, for the notes are
already there, waiting for them, and it is the piano tuner's
responsibility to tune the instrument for them. But they have their
own difficulties; the hammers that hit the string have to be coaxed
not to sound like percussion, and each overlapping tone has to sound
clear.
This problem of getting clear texture is one that confronts student
conductors: they have to learn to know every note of the music and how
it should sound, and they have to aim at controlling these sound with
fanatical but selfless authority.
Technique is of no use unless it is combined with musical knowledge
and understanding. Great artists are those who are so thoroughly at
home in the language of music that they can enjoy performing works
written in any century.
02 Schooling and Education
It is commonly believed in United States that school is where people
go to get an education. Nevertheless, it has been said that today
children interrupt their education to go to school. The distinction
between schooling and education implied by this remark is important.
Education is much more open-ended and all-inclusive than schooling.
Education knows no bounds. It can take place anywhere, whether in the
shower or in the job, whether in a kitchen or on a tractor. It
includes both the formal learning that takes place in schools and the
whole universe of informal learning. The agents of education can range
from a revered grandparent to the people debating politics on the
radio, from a child to a distinguished scientist. Whereas schooling
has a certain predictability, education quite often produces
surprises. A chance conversation with a stranger may lead a person to
discover how little is known of other religions. People are engaged in
education from infancy on. Education, then, is a very broad, inclusive
term. It is a lifelong process, a process that starts long before the
start of school, and one that should be an integral part of one's
entire life.
Schooling, on the other hand, is a specific, formalized process, whose
general pattern varies little from one setting to the next. Throughout
a country, children arrive at school at approximately the same time,
take assigned seats, are taught by an adult, use similar textbooks, do
homework, take exams, and so on. The slices of reality that are to be
learned, whether they are the alphabet or an understanding of the
working of government, have usually been limited by the boundaries of
the subject being taught. For example, high school students know that
there not likely to find out in their classes the truth about
political problems in their communities or what the newest filmmakers
are experimenting with. There are definite conditions surrounding the
formalized process of schooling.
03 The Definition of "Price"
Prices determine how resources are to be used. They are also the means
by which products and services that are in limited supply are rationed
among buyers. The price system of the United States is a complex
network composed of the prices of all the products bought and sold in
the economy as well as those of a myriad of services, including labor,
professional, transportation, and public-utility services. The
interrelationships of all these prices make up the "system" of prices.
The price of any particular product or service is linked to a broad,
complicated system of prices in which everything seems to depend more
or less upon everything else.
If one were to ask a group of randomly selected individuals to define
"price", many would reply that price is an amount of money paid by the
buyer to the seller of a product or service or, in other words that
price is the money values of a product or service as agreed upon in a
market transaction. This definition is, of course, valid as far as it
goes. For a complete understanding of a price in any particular
transaction, much more than the amount of money involved must be
known. Both the buyer and the seller should be familiar with not only
the money amount, but with the amount and quality of the product or
service to be exchanged, the time and place at which the exchange will
take place and payment will be made, the form of money to be used, the
credit terms and discounts that apply to the transaction, guarantees
on the product or service, delivery terms, return privileges, and
other factors. In other words, both buyer and seller should be fully
aware of all the factors that comprise the total "package" being
exchanged for the asked-for amount of money in order that they may
evaluate a given price.
04 Electricity
The modern age is an age of electricity. People are so used to
electric lights, radio, televisions, and telephones that it is hard to
imagine what life would be like without them. When there is a power
failure, people grope about in flickering candlelight, cars hesitate
in the streets because there are no traffic lights to guide them, and
food spoils in silent refrigerators.
Yet, people began to understand how electricity works only a little
more than two centuries ago. Nature has apparently been experimenting
in this field for million of years. Scientists are discovering more
and more that the living world may hold many interesting secrets of
electricity that could benefit humanity.
All living cell send out tiny pulses of electricity. As the heart
beats, it sends out pulses of record; they form an electrocardiogram,
which a doctor can study to determine how well the heart is working.
The brain, too, sends out brain waves of electricity, which can be
recorded in an electroencephalogram. The electric currents generated
by most living cells are extremely small – often so small that
sensitive instruments are needed to record them. But in some animals,
certain muscle cells have become so specialized as electrical
generators that they do not work as muscle cells at all. When large
numbers of these cell are linked together, the effects can be
astonishing.
The electric eel is an amazing storage battery. It can seed a jolt of
as much as eight hundred volts of electricity through the water in
which it live. ( An electric house current is only one hundred twenty
volts.) As many as four-fifths of all the cells in the electric eel's
body are specialized for generating electricity, and the strength of
the shock it can deliver corresponds roughly to length of its body.
05 The Beginning of Drama
There are many theories about the beginning of drama in ancient
Greece. The on most widely accepted today is based on the assumption
that drama evolved from ritual. The argument for this view goes as
follows. In the beginning, human beings viewed the natural forces of
the world-even the seasonal changes-as unpredictable, and they sought
through various means to control these unknown and feared powers.
Those measures which appeared to bring the desired results were then
retained and repeated until they hardened into fixed rituals.
Eventually stories arose which explained or veiled the mysteries of
the rites. As time passed some rituals were abandoned, but the
stories, later called myths, persisted and provided material for art
and drama.
Those who believe that drama evolved out of ritual also argue that
those rites contained the seed of theater because music, dance, masks,
and costumes were almost always used, Furthermore, a suitable site had
to be provided for performances and when the entire community did not
participate, a clear division was usually made between the "acting
area" and the "auditorium." In addition, there were performers, and,
since considerable importance was attached to avoiding mistakes in the
enactment of rites, religious leaders usually assumed that task.
Wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated other people,
animals, or supernatural beings, and mimed the desired effect-success
in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the revival of the Sun-as an actor
might. Eventually such dramatic representations were separated from
religious activities.
Another theory traces the theater's origin from the human interest in
storytelling. According to this vies tales (about the hunt, war, or
other feats) are gradually elaborated, at first through the use of
impersonation, action, and dialogue by a narrator and then through the
assumption of each of the roles by a different person. A closely
related theory traces theater to those dances that are primarily
rhythmical and gymnastic or that are imitations of animal movements
and sounds.
06 Television
Television-----the most pervasive and persuasive of modern
technologies, marked by rapid change and growth-is moving into a new
era, an era of extraordinary sophistication and versatility, which
promises to reshape our lives and our world. It is an electronic
revolution of sorts, made possible by the marriage of television and
computer technologies.
The word "television", derived from its Greek (tele: distant) and
Latin (visio: sight) roots, can literally be interpreted as sight from
a distance. Very simply put, it works in this way: through a
sophisticated system of electronics, television provides the
capability of converting an image (focused on a special
photoconductive plate within a camera) into electronic impulses, which
can be sent through a wire or cable. These impulses, when fed into a
receiver (television set), can then be electronically reconstituted
into that same image.
Television is more than just an electronic system, however. It is a
means of expression, as well as a vehicle for communication, and as
such becomes a powerful tool for reaching other human beings.
The field of television can be divided into two categories determined
by its means of transmission. First, there is broadcast television,
which reaches the masses through broad-based airwave transmission of
television signals. Second, there is nonbroadcast television, which
provides for the needs of individuals or specific interest groups
through controlled transmission techniques.
Traditionally, television has been a medium of the masses. We are most
familiar with broadcast television because it has been with us for
about thirty-seven years in a form similar to what exists today.
During those years, it has been controlled, for the most part, by the
broadcast networks, ABC, NBC, and CBS, who have been the major
purveyors of news, information, and entertainment. These giants of
broadcasting have actually shaped not only television but our
perception of it as well. We have come to look upon the picture tube
as a source of entertainment, placing our role in this dynamic medium
as the passive viewer.
07 Andrew Carnegie
Andrew Carnegie, known as the King of Steel, built the steel industry
in the United States, and , in the process, became one of the
wealthiest men in America. His success resulted in part from his
ability to sell the product and in part from his policy of expanding
during periods of economic decline, when most of his competitors were
reducing their investments.
Carnegie believed that individuals should progress through hard work,
but he also felt strongly that the wealthy should use their fortunes
for the benefit of society. He opposed charity, preferring instead to
provide educational opportunities that would allow others to help
themselves. "He who dies rich, dies disgraced," he often said.
Among his more noteworthy contributions to society are those that bear
his name, including the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, which has a
library, a museum of fine arts, and a museum of national history. He
also founded a school of technology that is now part of
Carnegie-Mellon University. Other philanthrophic gifts are the
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace to promote understanding
between nations, the Carnegie Institute of Washington to fund
scientific research, and Carnegie Hall to provide a center for the
arts.
Few Americans have been left untouched by Andrew Carnegie's
generosity. His contributions of more than five million dollars
established 2,500 libraries in small communities throughout the
country and formed the nucleus of the public library system that we
all enjoy today.
08 American Revolution
The American Revolution was not a sudden and violent overturning of
the political and social framework, such as later occurred in France
and Russia, when both were already independent nations. Significant
changes were ushered in, but they were not breathtaking. What happened
was accelerated evolution rather than outright revolution. During the
conflict itself people went on working and praying, marrying and
playing. Most of them were not seriously disturbed by the actual
fighting, and many of the more isolated communities scarcely knew that
a war was on.
America's War of Independence heralded the birth of three modern
nations. One was Canada, which received its first large influx of
English-speaking population from the thousands of loyalists who fled
there from the United States. Another was Australia, which became a
penal colony now that America was no longer available for prisoners
and debtors. The third newcomer-the United States-based itself
squarely on republican principles.
Yet even the political overturn was not so revolutionary as one might
suppose. In some states, notably Connecticut and Rhode Island, the war
largely ratified a colonial self-rule already existing. British
officials, everywhere ousted, were replaced by a home-grown governing
class, which promptly sought a local substitute for king and
Parliament.
09 Suburbanization
If by "suburb" is meant an urban margin that grows more rapidly than
its already developed interior, the process of suburbanization began
during the emergence of the industrial city in the second quarter of
the nineteenth century. Before that period the city was a small highly
compact cluster in which people moved about on foot and goods were
conveyed by horse and cart. But the early factories built in the
1840's were located along waterways and near railheads at the edges of
cities, and housing was needed for the thousands of people drawn by
the prospect of employment. In time, the factories were surrounded by
proliferating mill towns of apartments and row houses that abutted the
older, main cities. As a defense against this encroachment and to
enlarge their tax bases, the cities appropriated their industrial
neighbors. In 1854, for example, the city of Philadelphia annexed most
of Philadelphia County. Similar municipal maneuvers took place in
Chicago and in New York. Indeed, most great cities of the United
States achieved such status only by incorporating the communities
along their borders.
With the acceleration of industrial growth came acute urban crowding
and accompanying social stress-conditions that began to approach
disastrous proportions when, in 1888, the first commercially
successful electric traction line was developed. Within a few years
the horse-drawn trolleys were retired and electric streetcar networks
crisscrossed and connected every major urban area, fostering a wave of
suburbanization that transformed the compact industrial city into a
dispersed metropolis. This first phase of mass-scale suburbanization
was reinforced by the simultaneous emergence of the urban Middle
Class, whose desires for homeownership in neighborhoods far from the
aging inner city were satisfied by the developers of single-family
housing tracts.
10 Types of Speech
Standard usage includes those words and expressions understood, used,
and accepted by a majority of the speakers of a language in any
situation regardless of the level of formality. As such, these words
and expressions are well defined and listed in standard dictionaries.
Colloquialisms, on the other hand, are familiar words and idioms that
are understood by almost all speakers of a language and used in
informal speech or writing, but not considered appropriate for more
formal situations. Almost all idiomatic expressions are colloquial
language. Slang, however, refers to words and expressions understood
by a large number of speakers but not accepted as good, formal usage
by the majority. Colloquial expressions and even slang may be found in
standard dictionaries but will be so identified. Both colloquial usage
and slang are more common in speech than in writing.
Colloquial speech often passes into standard speech. Some slang also
passes into standard speech, but other slang expressions enjoy
momentary popularity followed by obscurity. In some cases, the
majority never accepts certain slang phrases but nevertheless retains
them in their collective memories. Every generation seems to require
its own set of words to describe familiar objects and events. It has
been pointed out by a number of linguists that three cultural
conditions are necessary for the creation of a large body of slang
expressions. First, the introduction and acceptance of new objects and
situations in the society; second, a diverse population with a large
number of subgroups; third, association among the subgroups and the
majority population.
Finally, it is worth noting that the terms "standard" "colloquial" and
"slang" exist only as abstract labels for scholars who study language.
Only a tiny number of the speakers of any language will be aware that
they are using colloquial or slang expressions. Most speakers of
English will, during appropriate situations, select and use all three
types of expressions.
11 Archaeology
Archaeology is a source of history, not just a bumble auxiliary
discipline. Archaeological data are historical documents in their own
right, not mere illustrations to written texts, Just as much as any
other historian, an archaeologist studies and tries to reconstitute
the process that has created the human world in which we live - and us
ourselves in so far as we are each creatures of our age and social
environment. Archaeological data are all changes in the material world
resulting from human action or, more succinctly, the fossilized
results of human behavior. The sum total of these constitutes what may
be called the archaeological record. This record exhibits certain
peculiarities and deficiencies the consequences of which produce a
rather superficial contrast between archaeological history and the
more familiar kind based upon written records.
Not all human behavior fossilizes. The words I utter and you hear as
vibrations in the air are certainly human changes in the material
world and may be of great historical significance. Yet they leave no
sort of trace in the archaeological records unless they are captured
by a dictaphone or written down by a clerk. The movement of troops on
the battlefield may "change the course of history," but this is
equally ephemeral from the archaeologist's standpoint. What is perhaps
worse, most organic materials are perishable. Everything made of wood,
hide, wool, linen, grass, hair, and similar materials will decay and
vanish in dust in a few years or centuries, save under very
exceptional conditions. In a relatively brief period the
archaeological record is reduce to mere scraps of stone, bone, glass,
metal, and earthenware. Still modern archaeology, by applying
appropriate techniques and comparative methods, aided by a few lucky
finds from peat-bogs, deserts, and frozen soils, is able to fill up a
good deal of the gap.
12 Museums
From Boston to Los Angeles, from New York City to Chicago to Dallas,
museums are either planning, building, or wrapping up wholesale
expansion programs. These programs already have radically altered
facades and floor plans or are expected to do so in the
not-too-distant future.
In New York City alone, six major institutions have spread up and out
into the air space and neighborhoods around them or are preparing to
do so.
The reasons for this confluence of activity are complex, but one
factor is a consideration everywhere - space. With collections
expanding, with the needs and functions of museums changing, empty
space has become a very precious commodity.
Probably nowhere in the country is this more true than at the
Philadelphia Museum of Art, which has needed additional space for
decades and which received its last significant facelift ten years
ago. Because of the space crunch, the Art Museum has become
increasingly cautious in considering acquisitions and donations of
art, in some cases passing up opportunities to strengthen its
collections.
Deaccessing - or selling off - works of art has taken on new
importance because of the museum's space problems. And increasingly,
curators have been forced to juggle gallery space, rotating one
masterpiece into public view while another is sent to storage.
Despite the clear need for additional gallery and storage space,
however," the museum has no plan, no plan to break out of its envelope
in the next fifteen years," according to Philadelphia Museum of Art's
president.
13 Skyscrapers and Environment
In the late 1960's, many people in North America turned their
attention to environmental problems, and new steel-and-glass
skyscrapers were widely criticized. Ecologists pointed out that a
cluster of tall buildings in a city often overburdens public
transportation and parking lot capacities.
Skyscrapers are also lavish consumers, and wasters, of electric power.
In one recent year, the addition of 17 million square feet of
skyscraper office space in New York City raised the peak daily demand
for electricity by 120, 000 kilowatts-enough to supply the entire city
of Albany, New York, for a day.
Glass-walled skyscrapers can be especially wasteful. The heat loss (or
gain)through a wall of half-inch plate glass is more than ten times
that through a typical masonry wall filled with insulation board. To
lessen the strain on heating and air-conditioning equipment, builders
of skyscrapers have begun to use double-glazed panels of glass, and
reflective glasses coated with silver or gold mirror films that reduce
glare as well as heat gain. However, mirror-walled skyscrapers raise
the temperature of the surrounding air and affect neighboring
buildings.
Skyscrapers put a severe strain on a city's sanitation facilities,
too. If fully occupied, the two World Trade Center towers in New York
City would alone generate 2.25 million gallons of raw sewage each
year-as much as a city the size of Stanford, Connecticut , which has a
population of more than 109, 000.
14 A Rare Fossil Record
The preservation of embryos and juveniles is a rate occurrence in the
fossil record. The tiny, delicate skeletons are usually scattered by
scavengers or destroyed by weathering before they can be fossilized.
Ichthyosaurs had a higher chance of being preserved than did
terrestrial creatures because, as marine animals, they tended to live
in environments less subject to erosion. Still, their fossilization
required a suite of factors: a slow rate of decay of soft tissues,
little scavenging by other animals, a lack of swift currents and waves
to jumble and carry away small bones, and fairly rapid burial. Given
these factors, some areas have become a treasury of well-preserved
ichthyosaur fossils.
The deposits at Holzmaden, Germany, present an interesting case for
analysis. The ichthyosaur remains are found in black, bituminous
marine shales deposited about 190 million years ago. Over the years,
thousands of specimens of marine reptiles, fish and invertebrates have
been recovered from these rocks. The quality of preservation is
outstanding, but what is even more impressive is the number of
ichthyosaur fossils containing preserved embryos. Ichthyosaurs with
embryos have been reported from 6 different levels of the shale in a
small area around Holzmaden, suggesting that a specific site was used
by large numbers of ichthyosaurs repeatedly over time. The embryos are
quite advanced in their physical development; their paddles, for
example, are already well formed. One specimen is even preserved in
the birth canal. In addition, the shale contains the remains of many
newborns that are between 20 and 30 inches long.
Why are there so many pregnant females and young at Holzmaden when
they are so rare elsewhere? The quality of preservation is almost
unmatched and quarry operations have been carried out carefully with
an awareness of the value of the fossils. But these factors do not
account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a
concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very
close to their time of giving birth.
15 The Nobel Academy
For the last 82years, Sweden's Nobel Academy has decided who will
receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, thereby determining who will be
elevated from the great and the near great to the immortal. But today
the Academy is coming under heavy criticism both from the without and
from within. Critics contend that the selection of the winners often
has less to do with true writing ability than with the peculiar
internal politics of the Academy and of Sweden itself. According to
Ingmar Bjorksten , the cultural editor for one of the country's two
major newspapers, the prize continues to represent "what people call a
very Swedish exercise: reflecting Swedish tastes."
The Academy has defended itself against such charges of provincialism
in its selection by asserting that its physical distance from the
great literary capitals of the world actually serves to protect the
Academy from outside influences. This may well be true, but critics
respond that this very distance may also be responsible for the
Academy's inability to perceive accurately authentic trends in the
literary world.
Regardless of concerns over the selection process, however, it seems
that the prize will continue to survive both as an indicator of the
literature that we most highly praise, and as an elusive goal that
writers seek. If for no other reason, the prize will continue to be
desirable for the financial rewards that accompany it; not only is the
cash prize itself considerable, but it also dramatically increases
sales of an author's books.
16. the war between Britain and France
In the late eighteenth century, battles raged in almost every corner
of Europe, as well as in the Middle East, south Africa ,the West
Indies, and Latin America. In reality, however, there was only one
major war during this time, the war between Britain and France. All
other battles were ancillary to this larger conflict, and were often
at least partially related to its antagonist' goals and strategies.
France sought total domination of Europe . this goal was obstructed by
British independence and Britain's efforts throughout the continent to
thwart Napoleon; through treaties. Britain built coalitions (not
dissimilar in concept to today's NATO) guaranteeing British
participation in all major European conflicts. These two antagonists
were poorly matched, insofar as they had very unequal strengths;
France was predominant on land, Britain at sea. The French knew that,
short of defeating the British navy, their only hope of victory was to
close all the ports of Europe to British ships. Accordingly, France
set out to overcome Britain by extending its military domination from
Moscow t Lisbon, from Jutland to Calabria. All of this entailed
tremendous risk, because France did not have the military resources to
control this much territory and still protect itself and maintain
order at home.
French strategists calculated that a navy of 150 ships would provide
the force necessary to defeat the British navy. Such a force would
give France a three-to-two advantage over Britain. This advantage was
deemed necessary because of Britain's superior sea skills and
technology because of Britain's superior sea skills and technology,
and also because Britain would be fighting a defensive war, allowing
it to win with fewer forces. Napoleon never lost substantial
impediment to his control of Europe. As his force neared that goal,
Napoleon grew increasingly impatient and began planning an immediate
attack.
17.Evolution of sleep
Sleep is very ancient. In the electroencephalographic sense we share
it with all the primates and almost all the other mammals and birds:
it may extend back as far as the reptiles.
There is some evidence that the two types of sleep, dreaming and
dreamless, depend on the life-style of the animal, and that predators
are statistically much more likely to dream than prey, which are in
turn much more likely to experience dreamless sleep. In dream sleep,
the animal is powerfully immobilized and remarkably unresponsive to
external stimuli. Dreamless sleep is much shallower, and we have all
witnessed cats or dogs cocking their ears to a sound when apparently
fast asleep. The fact that deep dream sleep is rare among pray today
seems clearly to be a product of natural selection, and it makes sense
that today, when sleep is highly evolved, the stupid animals are less
frequently immobilized by deep sleep than the smart ones. But why
should they sleep deeply at all? Why should a state of such deep
immobilization ever have evolved?
Perhaps one useful hint about the original function of sleep is to be
found in the fact that dolphins and whales and aquatic mammals in
genera seem to sleep very little. There is, by and large, no place to
hide in the ocean. Could it be that, rather than increasing an
animal's vulnerability, the University of Florida and Ray Meddis of
London University have suggested this to be the case. It is
conceivable that animals who are too stupid to be quite on their own
initiative are, during periods of high risk, immobilized by the
implacable arm of sleep. The point seems particularly clear for the
young of predatory animals. This is an interesting notion and probably
at least partly true.
18.Modern American Universities
Before the 1850's, the United States had a number of small colleges,
most of them dating from colonial days. They were small, church
connected institutions whose primary concern was to shape the moral
character of their students.
Throughout Europe, institutions of higher learning had developed,
bearing the ancient name of university. In German university was
concerned primarily with creating and spreading knowledge, not morals.
Between mid-century and the end of the 1800's, more than nine thousand
young Americans, dissatisfied with their training at home, went to
Germany for advanced study. Some of them return to become presidents
of venerable colleges-----Harvard, Yale, Columbia---and transform them
into modern universities. The new presidents broke all ties with the
churches and brought in a new kind of faculty. Professors were hired
for their knowledge of a subject, not because they were of the proper
faith and had a strong arm for disciplining students. The new
principle was that a university was to create knowledge as well as
pass it on, and this called for a faculty composed of
teacher-scholars. Drilling and learning by rote were replaced by the
German method of lecturing, in which the professor's own research was
presented in class. Graduate training leading to the Ph.D., an ancient
German degree signifying the highest level of advanced scholarly
attainment, was introduced. With the establishment of the seminar
system, graduate student learned to question, analyze, and conduct
their own research.
At the same time, the new university greatly expanded in size and
course offerings, breaking completely out of the old, constricted
curriculum of mathematics, classics, rhetoric, and music. The
president of Harvard pioneered the elective system, by which students
were able to choose their own course of study. The notion of major
fields of study emerged. The new goal was to make the university
relevant to the real pursuits of the world. Paying close heed to the
practical needs of society, the new universities trained men and women
to work at its tasks, with engineering students being the most
characteristic of the new regime. Students were also trained as
economists, architects, agriculturalists, social welfare workers, and
teachers.
19.children's numerical skills
people appear to born to compute. The numerical skills of children
develop so early and so inexorably that it is easy to imagine an
internal clock of mathematical maturity guiding their growth. Not long
after learning to walk and talk, they can set the table with impress
accuracy---one knife, one spoon, one fork, for each of the five
chairs. Soon they are capable of nothing that they have placed five
knives, spoons and forks on the table and, a bit later, that this
amounts to fifteen pieces of silverware. Having thus mastered
addition, they move on to subtraction. It seems almost reasonable to
expect that if a child were secluded on a desert island at birth and
retrieved seven years later, he or she could enter a second enter a
second-grade mathematics class without any serious problems of
intellectual adjustment.
Of course, the truth is not so simple. This century, the work of
cognitive psychologists has illuminated the subtle forms of daily
learning on which intellectual progress depends. Children were
observed as they slowly grasped-----or, as the case might be, bumped
into-----concepts that adults take for quantity is unchanged as water
pours from a short glass into a tall thin one. Psychologists have
since demonstrated that young children, asked to count the pencils in
a pile, readily report the number of blue or red pencils, but must be
coaxed into finding the total. Such studies have suggested that the
rudiments of mathematics are mastered gradually, and with effort. They
have also suggested that the very concept of abstract numbers------the
idea of a oneness,
a twoness, a threeness that applies to any class of objects and is a
prerequisite for doing anything more mathematically demanding than
setting a table-----is itself far from innate
20 The Historical Significance of American Revolution
The ways of history are so intricate and the motivations of human
actions so complex that it is always hazardous to attempt to represent
events covering a number of years, a multiplicity of persons, and
distant localities as the expression of one intellectual or social
movement; yet the historical process which culminated in the ascent of
Thomas Jefferson to the presidency can be regarded as the outstanding
example not only of the birth of a new way of life but of nationalism
as a new way of life. The American Revolution represents the link
between the seventeenth century, in which modern England became
conscious of itself, and the awakening of modern Europe at the end of
the eighteenth century. It may seem strange that the march of history
should have had to cross the Atlantic Ocean, but only in the North
American colonies could a struggle for civic liberty lead also to the
foundation of a new nation. Here, in the popular rising against a
"tyrannical" government, the fruits were more than the securing of a
freer constitution. They included the growth of a nation born in
liberty by the will of the people, not from the roots of common
descent, a geographic entity, or the ambitions of king or dynasty.
With the American nation, for the first time, a nation was born, not
in the dim past of history but before the eyes of the whole world.
21 The Origin of Sports
When did sport begin? If sport is, in essence, play, the claim might
be made that sport is much older than humankind, for , as we all have
observed, the beasts play. Dogs and cats wrestle and play ball games.
Fishes and birds dance. The apes have simple, pleasurable games.
Frolicking infants, school children playing tag, and adult arm
wrestlers are demonstrating strong, transgenerational and transspecies
bonds with the universe of animals – past, present, and future. Young
animals, particularly, tumble, chase, run wrestle, mock, imitate, and
laugh (or so it seems) to the point of delighted exhaustion. Their
play, and ours, appears to serve no other purpose than to give
pleasure to the players, and apparently, to remove us temporarily from
the anguish of life in earnest.
Some philosophers have claimed that our playfulness is the most noble
part of our basic nature. In their generous conceptions, play
harmlessly and experimentally permits us to put our creative forces,
fantasy, and imagination into action. Play is release from the tedious
battles against scarcity and decline which are the incessant, and
inevitable, tragedies of life. This is a grand conception that excites
and provokes. The holders of this view claim that the origins of our
highest accomplishments ---- liturgy, literature, and law ---- can be
traced to a play impulse which, paradoxically, we see most purely
enjoyed by young beasts and children. Our sports, in this rather
happy, nonfatalistic view of human nature, are more splendid creations
of the nondatable, transspecies play impulse.
22. Collectibles
Collectibles have been a part of almost every culture since ancient
times. Whereas some objects have been collected for their usefulness,
others have been selected for their aesthetic beauty alone. In the
United States, the kinds of collectibles currently popular range from
traditional objects such as stamps, coins, rare books, and art to more
recent items of interest like dolls, bottles, baseball cards, and
comic books.
Interest in collectibles has increased enormously during the past
decade, in part because some collectibles have demonstrated their
value as investments. Especially during cycles of high inflation,
investors try to purchase tangibles that will at least retain their
current market values. In general, the most traditional collectibles
will be sought because they have preserved their value over the years,
there is an organized auction market for them, and they are most
easily sold in the event that cash is needed. Some examples of the
most stable collectibles are old masters, Chinese ceramics, stamps,
coins, rare books, antique jewelry, silver, porcelain, art by
well-known artists, autographs, and period furniture. Other items of
more recent interest include old photograph records, old magazines,
post cards, baseball cards, art glass, dolls, classic cars, old
bottles, and comic books. These relatively new kinds of collectibles
may actually appreciate faster as short-term investments, but may not
hold their value as long-term investments. Once a collectible has had
its initial play, it appreciates at a fairly steady rate, supported by
an increasing number of enthusiastic collectors competing for the
limited supply of collectibles that become increasingly more difficult
to locate.
23 Ford
Although Henry Ford's name is closely associated with the concept of
mass production, he should receive equal credit for introducing labor
practices as early as 1913 that would be considered advanced even by
today's standards. Safety measures were improved, and the work day was
reduced to eight hours, compared with the ten-or twelve-hour day
common at the time. In order to accommodate the shorter work day, the
entire factory was converted from two to three shifts.
In addition, sick leaves as well as improved medical care for those
injured on the job were instituted. The Ford Motor Company was one of
the first factories to develop a technical school to train specialized
skilled laborers and an English language school for immigrants. Some
efforts were even made to hire the handicapped and provide jobs for
former convicts.
The most widely acclaimed innovation was the five-dollar-a-day minimum
wage that was offered in order to recruit and retain the best
mechanics and to discourage the growth of labor unions. Ford explained
the new wage policy in terms of efficiency and profit sharing. He also
mentioned the fact that his employees would be able to purchase the
automobiles that they produced – in effect creating a market for the
product. In order to qualify for the minimum wage, an employee had to
establish a decent home and demonstrate good personal habits,
including sobriety, thriftiness, industriousness, and dependability.
Although some criticism was directed at Ford for involving himself too
much in the personal lives of his employees, there can be no doubt
that, at a time when immigrants were being taken advantage of in
frightful ways, Henry Ford was helping many people to establish
themselves in America.
24．Piano
The ancestry of the piano can be traced to the early keyboard
instruments of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries --- the spinet,
the dulcimer, and the virginal. In the seventeenth century the organ,
the clavichord, and the harpsichord became the chief instruments of
the keyboard group, a supremacy they maintained until the piano
supplanted them at the end of the eighteenth century. The clavichord's
tone was metallic and never powerful; nevertheless, because of the
variety of tone possible to it, many composers found the clavichord a
sympathetic instrument for intimate chamber music. The harpsichord
with its bright, vigorous tone was the favorite instrument for
supporting the bass of the small orchestra of the period and for
concert use, but the character of the tone could not be varied save by
mechanical or structural devices.
The piano was perfected in the early eighteenth century by a
harpsichord maker in Italy (though musicologists point out several
previous instances of the instrument). This instrument was called a
piano e forte (sort and loud), to indicate its dynamic versatility;
its strings were struck by a recoiling hammer with a felt-padded head.
The wires were much heavier in the earlier instruments. A series of
mechanical improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century,
including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it,
the perfection of a metal frame, and steel wire of the finest quality,
finally produced an instrument capable of myriad tonal effects from
the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound,
from a liquid, singing tone to a sharp, percussive brilliance.
NOTE:
Musical Instruments
1.The strings (弦乐)
1) plectrum: harp, lute, guitar, mandolin;
2) keyboard: clavichord, harpsichord, piano;
3) bow: violin, viola, cello, double bass.
2. The Wood（木管）—winds : piccolo, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, English horn;
3. the brass（铜管）: French horn, trumpet, trombone, cornet, tuba, bugle,
saxophone;
4.the percussion（打击组）: kettle drum, bass drum, snare drum, castanet,
xylophone, celesta, cymbal, tambourine.
25. Movie Music
Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as
"silent", the film has never been, in the full sense of the word,
silent. From the very beginning, music was regarded as an
indispensable accompaniment; when the Lumiere films were shown at the
first public film exhibition in the United States in February 1896,
they were accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes. At
first, the music played bore no special relationship to the films; an
accompaniment of any kind was sufficient. Within a very short time,
however, the incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn film
became apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching
their pieces to the mood of the film.
As movie theaters grew in number and importance, a violinist, and
perhaps a cellist, would be added to the pianist in certain cases, and
in the larger movie theaters small orchestras were formed. For a
number of years the selection of music for each film program rested
entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and
very often the principal qualification for holding such a position was
not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal
library of musical pieces. Since the conductor seldom saw the films
until the night before they were to be shown(if indeed, the conductor
was lucky enough to see them then), the musical arrangement was
normally improvised in the greatest hurry.
To help meet this difficulty, film distributing companies started the
practice of publishing suggestions for musical accompaniments. In
1909, for example, the Edison Company began issuing with their films
such indications of mood as " pleasant", "sad", "lively". The
suggestions became more explicit, and so emerged the musical cue sheet
containing indications of mood, the titles of suitable pieces of
music, and precise directions to show where one piece led into the
next.
Certain films had music especially composed for them. The most famous
of these early special scores was that composed and arranged for D.W
Griffith's film Birth of a Nation, which was released in 191
Note:
美国通俗音乐分类：
1．Jazz;
1) traditional jazz---- a) blues, 代表人物：Billy Holiday
b)ragtime(切分乐曲): 代表人物：Scott Joplin
c)New Orleans jazz (= Dixieland jazz) eg: Louis Armstron
d)swing eg: Glenn Miller, Duke Ellington, etc.
e)bop (=bebop, rebop) eg: Lester Young, Charlie Parker etc.
2)modern jazz ------ a) cool jazz(=progressive jazz)高雅爵士乐。 Eg: Kenny G.
b)third-stream jazz. Eg: Charles Mingus, John Lewis.
c) main stream jazz.
d)avant-garde jazz.
e) soul jazz. Eg: Sarah Vaughn, Ella Fitzgerald
f) Latin jazz.
2.gospel music 福音音乐， 主要源于Nero spirituals. Eg. Dolly Parker, Mahalia Jackson
3.Country and Western music. Eg. John Denver, Tammy Wynette, Kenny Rogers, etc.
4. Rock music-----------a) rock and roll eg: Elvis Prestley(US) , the
Beatles(UK.)
b)folk rock Eg: Bob Dylon, Michael Jackson, Mariah Carey, Bruce
Springsteen, Lionel Riche etc.
c)punk rock
d)acid rock
e)rock jazz eg: M.J. McLaughlin
f) Jurassic rock
5.Music for easy listening (i.e. light music )
26. International Business and Cross-cultural Communication
The increase in international business and in foreign investment has
created a need for executives with knowledge of foreign languages and
skills in cross-cultural communication. Americans, however, have not
been well trained in either area and, consequently, have not enjoyed
the same level of success in negotiation in an international arena as
have their foreign counterparts.
Negotiating is the process of communicating back and forth for the
purpose of reaching an agreement. It involves persuasion and
compromise, but in order to participate in either one, the negotiators
must understand the ways in which people are persuaded and how
compromise is reached within the culture of the negotiation.
In many international business negotiations abroad, Americans are
perceived as wealthy and impersonal. It often appears to the foreign
negotiator that the American represents a large multi-million-dollar
corporation that can afford to pay the price without bargaining
further. The American negotiator's role becomes that of an impersonal
purveyor of information and cash.
In studies of American negotiators abroad, several traits have been
identified that may serve to confirm this stereotypical perception,
while undermining the negotiator's position. Two traits in particular
that cause cross-cultural misunderstanding are directness and
impatience on the part of the American negotiator. Furthermore,
American negotiators often insist on realizing short-term goals.
Foreign negotiators, on the other hand, may value the relationship
established between negotiators and may be willing to invest time in
it for long-term benefits. In order to solidify the relationship, they
may opt for indirect interactions without regard for the time involved
in getting to know the other negotiator.
27. Scientific Theories
In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events
that are related. A theory often involves an imaginary model that
helps scientists picture the way an observed event could be produced.
A good example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory, in
which gases are pictured as being made up of many small particles that
are in constant motion.
A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to
predict events that have not as yet been observed. After a theory has
been publicized, scientists design experiments to test the theory. If
observations confirm the scientist's predictions, the theory is
supported. If observations do not confirm the predictions, the
scientists must search further. There may be a fault in the
experiment, or the theory may have to be revised or rejected.
Science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as
collecting information and performing experiments. Facts by themselves
are not science. As the mathematician Jules Henri Poincare said,
"Science is built with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but
a collection of facts cannot be called science any more than a pile of
bricks can be called a house."
Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other
scientists have learned about a particular problem. After known facts
have been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of the
investigation that requires considerable imagination. Possible
solutions to the problem are formulated. These possible solutions are
called hypotheses.
In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown. It extends the
scientist's thinking beyond the known facts. The scientist plans
experiments, performs calculations, and makes observations to test
hypotheses. Without hypothesis, further investigation lacks purpose
and direction. When hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated
into theories.
28.Changing Roles of Public Education
One of the most important social developments that helped to make
possible a shift in thinking about the role of public education was
the effect of the baby boom of the 1950's and 1960's on the schools.
In the 1920's, but especially in the Depression conditions of the
1930's, the United States experienced a declining birth rate --- every
thousand women aged fifteen to forty-four gave birth to about 118 live
children in 1920, 89.2 in 1930, 75.8 in 1936, and 80 in 1940. With the
growing prosperity brought on by the Second World War and the economic
boom that followed it young people married and established households
earlier and began to raise larger families than had their predecessors
during the Depression. Birth rates rose to 102 per thousand in
1946,106.2 in 1950, and 118 in 1955. Although economics was probably
the most important determinant, it is not the only explanation for the
baby boom. The increased value placed on the idea of the family also
helps to explain this rise in birth rates. The baby boomers began
streaming into the first grade by the mid 1940's and became a flood by
1950. The public school system suddenly found itself overtaxed. While
the number of schoolchildren rose because of wartime and postwar
conditions, these same conditions made the schools even less prepared
to cope with the food. The wartime economy meant that few new schools
were built between 1940 and 1945. Moreover, during the war and in the
boom times that followed, large numbers of teachers left their
profession for better-paying jobs elsewhere in the economy.
Therefore in the 1950's and 1960's, the baby boom hit an antiquated
and inadequate school system. Consequently, the " custodial rhetoric"
of the 1930's and early 1940's no longer made sense that is, keeping
youths aged sixteen and older out of the labor market by keeping them
in school could no longer be a high priority for an institution unable
to find space and staff to teach younger children aged five to
sixteen. With the baby boom, the focus of educators and of laymen
interested in education inevitably turned toward the lower grades and
back to basic academic skills and discipline. The system no longer had
much interest in offering nontraditional, new, and extra services to
older youths.
28.Changing Roles of Public Education
One of the most important social developments that helped to make
possible a shift in thinking about the role of public education was
the effect of the baby boom of the 1950's and 1960's on the schools.
In the 1920's, but especially in the Depression conditions of the
1930's, the United States experienced a declining birth rate --- every
thousand women aged fifteen to forty-four gave birth to about 118 live
children in 1920, 89.2 in 1930, 75.8 in 1936, and 80 in 1940. With the
growing prosperity brought on by the Second World War and the economic
boom that followed it young people married and established households
earlier and began to raise larger families than had their predecessors
during the Depression. Birth rates rose to 102 per thousand in
1946,106.2 in 1950, and 118 in 1955. Although economics was probably
the most important determinant, it is not the only explanation for the
baby boom. The increased value placed on the idea of the family also
helps to explain this rise in birth rates. The baby boomers began
streaming into the first grade by the mid 1940's and became a flood by
1950. The public school system suddenly found itself overtaxed. While
the number of schoolchildren rose because of wartime and postwar
conditions, these same conditions made the schools even less prepared
to cope with the food. The wartime economy meant that few new schools
were built between 1940 and 1945. Moreover, during the war and in the
boom times that followed, large numbers of teachers left their
profession for better-paying jobs elsewhere in the economy.
Therefore in the 1950's and 1960's, the baby boom hit an antiquated
and inadequate school system. Consequently, the " custodial rhetoric"
of the 1930's and early 1940's no longer made sense that is, keeping
youths aged sixteen and older out of the labor market by keeping them
in school could no longer be a high priority for an institution unable
to find space and staff to teach younger children aged five to
sixteen. With the baby boom, the focus of educators and of laymen
interested in education inevitably turned toward the lower grades and
back to basic academic skills and discipline. The system no longer had
much interest in offering nontraditional, new, and extra services to
older youths.
29 Telecommuting
Telecommuting-- substituting the computer for the trip to the job
----has been hailed as a solution to all kinds of problems related to
office work.
For workers it promises freedom from the office, less time wasted in
traffic, and help with child-care conflicts. For management,
telecommuting helps keep high performers on board, minimizes tardiness
and absenteeism by eliminating commutes, allows periods of solitude
for high-concentration tasks, and provides scheduling flexibility. In
some areas, such as Southern California and Seattle, Washington, local
governments are encouraging companies to start telecommuting programs
in order to reduce rush-hour congestion and improve air quality.
But these benefits do not come easily. Making a telecommuting program
work requires careful planning and an understanding of the differences
between telecommuting realities and popular images.
Many workers are seduced by rosy illusions of life as a telecommuter.
A computer programmer from New York City moves to the tranquil
Adirondack Mountains and stays in contact with her office via
computer. A manager comes in to his office three days a week and works
at home the other two. An accountant stays home to care for her sick
child; she hooks up her telephone modern connections and does office
work between calls to the doctor.
These are powerful images, but they are a limited reflection of
reality. Telecommuting workers soon learn that it is almost impossible
to concentrate on work and care for a young child at the same time.
Before a certain age, young children cannot recognize, much less
respect, the necessary boundaries between work and family. Additional
child support is necessary if the parent is to get any work done.
Management too must separate the myth from the reality. Although the
media has paid a great deal of attention to telecommuting in most
cases it is the employee's situation, not the availability of
technology that precipitates a telecommuting arrangement.
That is partly why, despite the widespread press coverage, the number
of companies with work-at-home programs or policy guidelines remains
small.
30 The origin of Refrigerators
By the mid-nineteenth century, the term "icebox" had entered the
American language, but ice was still only beginning to affect the diet
of ordinary citizens in the United States. The ice trade grew with the
growth of cities. Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and hospitals, and
by some forward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh fish, and
butter. After the Civil War( 1861-1865),as ice was used to refrigerate
freight cars, it also came into household use. Even before 1880,half
of the ice sold in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and
one-third of that sold in Boston and Chicago, went to families for
their own use. This had become possible because a new household
convenience, the icebox, a precursor of the modern refrigerator, had
been invented.
Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose. In
the early nineteenth century, the knowledge of the physics of heat,
which was essential to a science of refrigeration, was rudimentary.
The commonsense notion that the best icebox was one that prevented the
ice from melting was of course mistaken, for it was the melting of the
ice that performed the cooling. Nevertheless, early efforts to
economize ice included wrapping up the ice in blankets, which kept the
ice from doing its job. Not until near the end of the nineteenth
century did inventors achieve the delicate balance of insulation and
circulation needed for an efficient icebox.
But as early as 1803, and ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had
been on the right track. He owned a farm about twenty miles outside
the city of Washington, for which the village of Georgetown was the
market center. When he used an icebox of his own design to transport
his butter to market, he found that customers would pass up the
rapidly melting stuff in the tubs of his competitors to pay a premium
price for his butter, still fresh and hard in neat, one-pound bricks.
One advantage of his icebox, Moore explained, was that farmers would
no longer have to travel to market at night in order to keep their
produce cool.
31 British Columbia
British Columbia is the third largest Canadian provinces, both in area
and population. It is nearly 1.5 times as large as Texas, and extends
800 miles(1,280km) north from the United States border. It includes
Canada's entire west coast and the islands just off the coast.
Most of British Columbia is mountainous, with long rugged ranges
running north and south. Even the coastal islands are the remains of a
mountain range that existed thousands of years ago. During the last
Ice Age, this range was scoured by glaciers until most of it was
beneath the sea. Its peaks now show as islands scattered along the
coast.
The southwestern coastal region has a humid mild marine climate. Sea
winds that blow inland from the west are warmed by a current of warm
water that flows through the Pacific Ocean. As a result, winter
temperatures average above freezing and summers are mild. These warm
western winds also carry moisture from the ocean.
Inland from the coast, the winds from the Pacific meet the mountain
barriers of the coastal ranges and the Rocky Mountains. As they rise
to cross the mountains, the winds are cooled, and their moisture
begins to fall as rain. On some of the western slopes almost 200
inches (500cm) of rain fall each year.
More than half of British Columbia is heavily forested. On mountain
slopes that receive plentiful rainfall, huge Douglas firs rise in
towering columns. These forest giants often grow to be as much as 300
feet(90m) tall, with diameters up to 10 feet(3m). More lumber is
produced from these trees than from any other kind of tree in North
America. Hemlock, red cedar, and balsam fir are among the other trees
found in British Columbia.
32 Botany
Botany, the study of plants, occupies a peculiar position in the
history of human knowledge. For many thousands of years it was the one
field of awareness about which humans had anything more than the
vaguest of insights. It is impossible to know today just what our
Stone Age ancestors knew about plants, but form what we can observe of
pre-industrial societies that still exist a detailed learning of
plants and their properties must be extremely ancient. This is
logical. Plants are the basis of the food pyramid for all living
things even for other plants. They have always been enormously
important to the welfare of people not only for food, but also for
clothing, weapons, tools, dyes, medicines, shelter, and a great many
other purposes. Tribes living today in the jungles of the Amazon
recognize literally hundreds of plants and know many properties of
each. To them, botany, as such, has no name and is probably not even
recognized as a special branch of " knowledge" at all.
Unfortunately, the more industrialized we become the farther away we
move from direct contact with plants, and the less distinct our
knowledge of botany grows. Yet everyone comes unconsciously on an
amazing amount of botanical knowledge, and few people will fail to
recognize a rose, an apple, or an orchid. When our Neolithic
ancestors, living in the Middle East about 10,000 years ago,
discovered that certain grasses could be harvested and their seeds
planted for richer yields the next season the first great step in a
new association of plants and humans was taken. Grains were discovered
and from them flowed the marvel of agriculture: cultivated crops. From
then on, humans would increasingly take their living from the
controlled production of a few plants, rather than getting a little
here and a little there from many varieties that grew wild- and the
accumulated knowledge of tens of thousands of years of experience and
intimacy with plants in the wild would begin to fade away.
33 Plankton浮游生物. / 'plжηktэn; `plжηktэn/
Scattered through the seas of the world are billions of tons of small
plants and animals called plankton. Most of these plants and animals
are too small for the human eye to see. They drift about lazily with
the currents, providing a basic food for many larger animals.
Plankton has been described as the equivalent of the grasses that grow
on the dry land continents, and the comparison is an appropriate one.
In potential food value, however, plankton far outweighs that of the
land grasses. One scientist has estimated that while grasses of the
world produce about 49 billion tons of valuable carbohydrates each
year, the sea's plankton generates more than twice as much.
Despite its enormous food potential, little effect was made until
recently to farm plankton as we farm grasses on land. Now marine
scientists have at last begun to study this possibility, especially as
the sea's resources loom even more important as a means of feeding an
expanding world population.
No one yet has seriously suggested that " plankton-burgers" may soon
become popular around the world. As a possible farmed supplementary
food source, however, plankton is gaining considerable interest among
marine scientists.
One type of plankton that seems to have great harvest possibilities is
a tiny shrimp-like creature called krill. Growing to two or three
inches long, krill provides the major food for the great blue whale,
the largest animal to ever inhabit the Earth. Realizing that this
whale may grow to 100 feet and weigh 150 tons at maturity, it is not
surprising that each one devours more than one ton of krill daily.
34 Raising Oysters
In the oysters were raised in much the same way as dirt farmers raised
tomatoes- by transplanting them. First, farmers selected the oyster
bed, cleared the bottom of old shells and other debris, then scattered
clean shells about. Next, they "planted" fertilized oyster eggs, which
within two or three weeks hatched into larvae. The larvae drifted
until they attached themselves to the clean shells on the bottom.
There they remained and in time grew into baby oysters called seed or
spat. The spat grew larger by drawing in seawater from which they
derived microscopic particles of food. Before long, farmers gathered
the baby oysters, transplanted them once more into another body of
water to fatten them up.
Until recently the supply of wild oysters and those crudely farmed
were more than enough to satisfy people's needs. But today the
delectable seafood is no longer available in abundance. The problem
has become so serious that some oyster beds have vanished entirely.
Fortunately, as far back as the early 1900's marine biologists
realized that if new measures were not taken, oysters would become
extinct or at best a luxury food. So they set up well-equipped
hatcheries and went to work. But they did not have the proper
equipment or the skill to handle the eggs. They did not know when,
what, and how to feed the larvae. And they knew little about the
predators that attack and eat baby oysters by the millions. They
failed, but they doggedly kept at it. Finally, in the 1940's a
significant breakthrough was made.
The marine biologists discovered that by raising the temperature of
the water, they could induce oysters to spawn not only in the summer
but also in the fall, winter, and spring. Later they developed a
technique for feeding the larvae and rearing them to spat. Going still
further, they succeeded in breeding new strains that were resistant to
diseases, grew faster and larger, and flourished in water of different
salinities and temperatures. In addition, the cultivated oysters
tasted better!
35.Oil Refining
An important new industry, oil refining, grew after the Civil war.
Crude oil, or petroleum – a dark, thick ooze from the earth – had been
known for hundreds of years, but little use had ever been made of it.
In the 1850's Samuel M. Kier, a manufacturer in western Pennsylvania,
began collecting the oil from local seepages and refining it into
kerosene. Refining, like smelting, is a process of removing impurities
from a raw material.
Kerosene was used to light lamps. It was a cheap substitute for whale
oil, which was becoming harder to get. Soon there was a large demand
for kerosene. People began to search for new supplies of petroleum.
The first oil well was drilled by E.L. Drake, a retired railroad
conductor. In 1859 he began drilling in Titusville, Pennsylvania. The
whole venture seemed so impractical and foolish that onlookers called
it " Drake's Folly". But when he had drilled down about 70 feet(21
meters), Drake struck oil. His well began to yield 20 barrels of crude
oil a day.
News of Drake's success brought oil prospectors to the scene. By the
early 1860's these wildcatters were drilling for " black gold" all
over western Pennsylvania. The boom rivaled the California gold rush
of 1848 in its excitement and Wild West atmosphere. And it brought far
more wealth to the prospectors than any gold rush.
Crude oil could be refined into many products. For some years kerosene
continued to be the principal one. It was sold in grocery stores and
door-to-door. In the 1880's refiners learned how to make other
petroleum products such as waxes and lubricating oils. Petroleum was
not then used to make gasoline or heating oil.
36.Plate Tectonics and Sea-floor Spreading
The theory of plate tectonics describes the motions of the
lithosphere, the comparatively rigid outer layer of the Earth that
includes all the crust and part of the underlying mantle. The
lithosphere(n.[地]岩石圈)is divided into a few dozen plates of various
sizes and shapes, in general the plates are in motion with respect to
one another. A mid-ocean ridge is a boundary between plates where new
lithospheric material is injected from below. As the plates diverge
from a mid-ocean ridge they slide on a more yielding layer at the base
of the lithosphere.
Since the size of the Earth is essentially constant, new lithosphere
can be created at the mid-ocean ridges only if an equal amount of
lithospheric material is consumed elsewhere. The site of this
destruction is another kind of plate boundary: a subduction zone.
There one plate dives under the edge of another and is reincorporated
into the mantle. Both kinds of plate boundary are associated with
fault systems, earthquakes and volcanism, but the kinds of geologic
activity observed at the two boundaries are quite different.
The idea of sea-floor spreading actually preceded the theory of plate
tectonics. In its original version, in the early 1960's, it described
the creation and destruction of the ocean floor, but it did not
specify rigid lithospheric plates. The hypothesis was substantiated
soon afterward by the discovery that periodic reversals of the Earth's
magnetic field are recorded in the oceanic crust. As magma rises under
the mid-ocean ridge, ferromagnetic minerals in the magma become
magnetized in the direction of the magma become magnetized in the
direction of the geomagnetic field. When the magma cools and
solidifies, the direction and the polarity of the field are preserved
in the magnetized volcanic rock. Reversals of the field give rise to a
series of magnetic stripes running parallel to the axis of the rift.
The oceanic crust thus serves as a magnetic tape recording of the
history of the geomagnetic field that can be dated independently; the
width of the stripes indicates the rate of the sea-floor spreading.
37 Icebergs
Icebergs are among nature's most spectacular creations, and yet most
people have never seen one. A vague air of mystery envelops them. They
come into being ----- somewhere ------in faraway, frigid waters, amid
thunderous noise and splashing turbulence, which in most cases no one
hears or sees. They exist only a short time and then slowly waste away
just as unnoticed.
Objects of sheerest beauty they have been called. Appearing in an
endless variety of shapes, they may be dazzlingly white, or they may
be glassy blue, green or purple, tinted faintly of in darker hues.
They are graceful, stately, inspiring ----- in calm, sunlight seas.
But they are also called frightening and dangerous, and that they are
---- in the night, in the fog, and in storms. Even in clear weather
one is wise to stay a safe distance away from them. Most of their bulk
is hidden below the water, so their underwater parts may extend out
far beyond the visible top. Also, they may roll over unexpectedly,
churning the waters around them.
Icebergs are parts of glaciers that break off, drift into the water,
float about awhile, and finally melt. Icebergs afloat today are made
of snowflakes that have fallen over long ages of time. They embody
snows that drifted down hundreds, or many thousands, or in some cases
maybe a million years ago. The snows fell in polar regions and on cold
mountains, where they melted only a little or not at all, and so
collected to great depths over the years and centuries.
As each year's snow accumulation lay on the surface, evaporation and
melting caused the snowflakes slowly to lose their feathery points and
become tiny grains of ice. When new snow fell on top of the old, it
too turned to icy grains. So blankets of snow and ice grains mounted
layer upon layer and were of such great thickness that the weight of
the upper layers compressed the lower ones. With time and pressure
from above, the many small ice grains joined and changed to larger
crystals, and eventually the deeper crystals merged into a solid mass
of ice.
38 Topaz
Topaz is a hard, transparent mineral. It is a compound of aluminum,
silica, and fluorine. Gem topaz is valuable. Jewelers call this
variety of the stone "precious topaz". The best-known precious topaz
gems range in color from rich yellow to light brown or pinkish red.
Topaz is one of the hardest gem minerals. In the mineral table of
hardness, it has a rating of 8, which means that a knife cannot cut
it, and that topaz will scratch quartz.
The golden variety of precious topaz is quite uncommon. Most of the
world's topaz is white or blue. The white and blue crystals of topaz
are large, often weighing thousands of carats. For this reason, the
value of topaz does not depend so much on its size as it does with
diamonds and many other precious stones, where the value increases
about four times with each doubling of weight. The value of a topaz is
largely determined by its quality. But color is also important: blue
topaz, for instance, is often irradiated to deepen and improve its
color.
Blue topaz is often sold as aquamarine and a variety of brown quartz
is widely sold as topaz. The quartz is much less brilliant and more
plentiful than true topaz. Most of it is variety of amethyst: that
heat has turned brown.
NOTE:
topaz / 'tэupжz; `topжz/ n (a) [U] transparent yellow mineral 黄玉（矿物）.
(b) [C] semi-precious gem cut from this 黄玉; 黄宝石.
39 The Salinity of Ocean Waters
If the salinity of ocean waters is analyzed, it is found to vary only
slightly from place to place. Nevertheless, some of these small
changes are important. There are three basic processes that cause a
change in oceanic salinity. One of these is the subtraction of water
from the ocean by means of evaporation--- conversion of liquid water
to water vapor. In this manner the salinity is increased, since the
salts stay behind. If this is carried to the extreme, of course, white
crystals of salt would be left behind.
The opposite of evaporation is precipitation, such as rain, by which
water is added to the ocean. Here the ocean is being diluted so that
the salinity is decreased. This may occur in areas of high rainfall or
in coastal regions where rivers flow into the ocean. Thus salinity may
be increased by the subtraction of water by evaporation, or decreased
by the addition of fresh water by precipitation or runoff.
Normally, in tropical regions where the sun is very strong, the ocean
salinity is somewhat higher than it is in other parts of the world
where there is not as much evaporation. Similarly, in coastal regions
where rivers dilute the sea, salinity is somewhat lower than in other
oceanic areas.
A third process by which salinity may be altered is associated with
the formation and melting of sea ice. When sea water is frozen, the
dissolved materials are left behind. In this manner, sea water
directly materials are left behind. In this manner, sea water directly
beneath freshly formed sea ice has a higher salinity than it did
before the ice appeared. Of course, when this ice melts, it will tend
to decrease the salinity of the surrounding water.
In the Weddell Sea Antarctica, the densest water in the oceans is
formed as a result of this freezing process, which increases the
salinity of cold water. This heavy water sinks and is found in the
deeper portions of the oceans of the world.
NOTE：
salinity / sэ'linэti; sэ`linэti/ n [U] the high salinity of sea water 海水的高含盐量.
-à>>saline / 'seilain; US -li:n; `selin/ 1.adj [attrib 作定语] (fml 文)
containing salt; salty 含盐的; 咸的:
* a saline lake 盐湖 * saline springs 盐泉
* saline solution, eg as used for gargling, storing contact lenses,
etc 盐溶液（如用于漱喉、存放隐形眼镜等）.
2. n [U] (medical 医) solution of salt and water 盐水.
40 Cohesion-tension Theory
Atmospheric pressure can support a column of water up to 10 meters
high. But plants can move water much higher; the sequoia tree can pump
water to its very top more than 100 meters above the ground. Until the
end of the nineteenth century, the movement of water in trees and
other tall plants was a mystery. Some botanists hypothesized that the
living cells of plants acted as pumps. But many experiments
demonstrated that the stems of plants in which all the cells are
killed can still move water to appreciable heights. Other explanations
for the movement of water in plants have been based on root pressure,
a push on the water from the roots at the bottom of the plant. But
root pressure is not nearly great enough to push water to the tops of
tall trees. Furthermore, the conifers, which are among the tallest
trees, have unusually low root pressures.
If water is not pumped to the top of a tall tree, and if it is not
pushed to the top of a tall tree, then we may ask: how does it get
there? According to the currently accepted cohesion-tension theory,
water is pulled there. The pull on a rising column of water in a plant
results from the evaporation of water at the top of the plant. As
water is lost from the surface of the leaves, a negative pressure, or
tension, is created. The evaporated water is replaced by water moving
from inside the plant in unbroken columns that extend from the top of
a plant to its roots. The same forces that create surface tension in
any sample of water are responsible for the maintenance of these
unbroken columns of water. When water is confined in tubes of very
small bore, the forces of cohesion (the attraction between water
molecules) are so great that the strength of a column of water
compares with the strength of a steel wire of the same diameter. This
cohesive strength permits columns of water to
41.American black bears
American black bears appear in a variety of colors despite their name.
In the eastern part of their range, most of these brown, red, or even
yellow coats. To the north, the black bear is actually gray or white
in color. Even in the same litter, both brown and black furred bears
may be born.
Black bears are the smallest of all American bears, ranging in length
from five to six feet, weighing from three hundred to five hundred
pounds Their eyes and ears are small and their eyesight and hearing
are not as good as their sense of smell.
Like all bears, the black bear is timid, clumsy, and rarely dangerous
, but if attacked, most can climb trees and cover ground at great
speeds. When angry or frightened, it is a formidable enemy.
Black bears feed on leaves, herbs. Fruit, berries, insects, fish, and
even larger animals. One of the most interesting characteristics of
bears, including the black bear, is their winter sleep. Unlike
squirrels, woodchucks, and many other woodland animals, bears do not
actually hibernate. Although the bear does not during the winter
moths, sustaining itself from body fat, its temperature remains almost
normal, and it breathes regularly four or five times per minute.
Most black bears live alone, except during mating season. They prefer
to live in caves, hollow logs, or dense thickets. A little of one to
four cubs is born in January or February after a gestation period of
six to nine months, and they remain with their mother until they are
fully grown or about one and a half years old. Black bears can live as
long as thirty years in the wild , and even longer in game preserves
set aside for them.
42.Coal-fired power plants
The invention of the incandescent light bulb by Thomas A. Edison in
1879 created a demand for a cheap, readily available fuel with which
to generate large amounts of electric power. Coal seemed to fit the
bill, and it fueled the earliest power stations. (which were set up at
the end of the nineteenth century by Edison himself). As more power
plants were constructed throughout the country, the reliance on coal
increased throughout the country, the reliance on coal increased.
Since the First World War, coal-fired power plants had a combined in
the United States each year. In 1986 such plants had a combined
generating capacity of 289,000 megawatts and consumed 83 percent of
the nearly 900 million tons of coal mined in the country that year.
Given the uncertainty in the future growth of the nearly 900 million
tons of coal mined in the country that year. Given the uncertainty in
the future growth of nuclear power and in the supply of oil and
natural gas, coal-fired power plants could well provide up to 70
percent of the electric power in the United States by the end of the
century.
Yet, in spite of the fact that coal has long been a source of
electricity and may remain on for many years(coal represents about 80
percent of United States fossil-fuel reserves), it has actually never
been the most desirable fossil fuel for power plants. Coal contains
less energy per unit of weight than weight than natural gas or oil; it
is difficult to transport, and it is associated with a host of
environmental issues, among them acid rain. Since the late 1960's
problems of emission control and waste disposal have sharply reduced
the appeal of coal-fired power plants. The cost of ameliorating these
environment problems along with the rising cost of building a facility
as large and complex as a coal-fired power plant, have also made such
plants less attractive from a purely economic perspective.
Changes in the technological base of coal-fired power plants could
restore their attractiveness, however. Whereas some of these changes
are intended mainly to increase the productivity of existing plants,
completely new technologies for burning coal cleanly are also being
developed.
43.Statistics
There were two widely divergent influences on the early development of
statistical methods. Statistics had a mother who was dedicated to
keeping orderly records of government units (states and statistics
come from the same Latin root status) and a gentlemanly gambling
father who relied on mathematics to increase his skill at playing the
odds in games of chance. The influence of the mother on the offspring,
statistics, is represented by counting, measuring, describing,
tabulating, ordering, and the taking of censuses—all of which led to
modern descriptive statistics. From the influence of the father came
modern inferential statistics, which is based squarely on theories of
probability.
Describing collections involves tabulating, depicting and describing
collections of data. These data may be quantitative such as measures
of height, intelligence or grade level------variables that are
characterized by an underlying continuum---or the data may represent
qualitative variables, such as sex, college major or personality type.
Large masses of data must generally undergo a process of summarization
or reduction before they are comprehensible. Descriptive statistics is
a tool for describing or summarizing or reducing to comprehensible
form the properties of an otherwise unwieldy mass of data.
Inferential statistics is a formalized body of methods for solving
another class of problems that present great of problems
characteristically involves attempts to make predictions using a
sample of observations. For example, a school superintendent wishes to
determine the proportion of children in a large school system who come
to school without breakfast, have been vaccinated for flu, or
whatever. Having a little knowledge of statistics, the superintendent
would know that it is unnecessary and inefficient to question each
child: the proportion for the sample of as few as 100 children. Thus ,
the purpose of inferential statistics is to predict or estimate
characteristics of a population from a knowledge of the
characteristics of only a sample of the population.
44.Obtaining Fresh water from icebergs
The concept of obtaining fresh water from icebergs that are towed to
populated areas and arid regions of the world was once treated as a
joke more appropriate to cartoons than real life. But now it is being
considered quite seriously by many nations, especially since
scientists have warned that the human race will outgrow its fresh
water supply faster than it runs out of food.
Glaciers are a possible source of fresh water that has been overlooked
until recently. Three-quarters of the Earth's fresh water supply is
still tied up in glacial ice, a reservoir of untapped fresh water so
immense that it could sustain all the rivers of the world for 1,000
years. Floating on the oceans every year are 7,659 trillion metric
tons of ice encased in 10000 icebergs that break away from the polar
ice caps, more than ninety percent of them from Antarctica.
Huge glaciers that stretch over the shallow continental shelf give
birth to icebergs throughout the year. Icebergs are not like sea ice,
which is formed when the sea itself freezes, rather, they are formed
entirely on land, breaking off when glaciers spread over the sea. As
they drift away from the polar region, icebergs sometimes move
mysteriously in a direction opposite to the wind, pulled by subsurface
currents. Because they melt more slowly than smaller pieces of ice,
icebergs have been known to drift as far north as 35 degrees south of
the equator in the Atlantic Ocean. To corral them and steer them to
parts of the world where they are needed would not be too difficult.
The difficulty arises in other technical matters, such as the
prevention of rapid melting in warmer climates and the funneling of
fresh water to shore in great volume. But even if the icebergs lost
half of their volume in towing, the water they could provide would be
far cheaper than that produced by desalinization, or removing salt
from water.
45.The source of Energy
A summary of the physical and chemical nature of life must begin, not
on the Earth, but in the Sun; in fact, at the Sun's very center. It is
here that is to be found the source of the energy that the Sun
constantly pours out into space as light and heat. This energy is
librated at the center of the Sun as billions upon billions of nuclei
of hydrogen atoms collide with each other and fuse together to form
nuclei of helium, and in doing so, release some of the energy that is
stored in the nuclei of atoms. The output of light and heat of the Sun
requires that some 600 million tons of hydrogen be converted into
helium in the Sun every second. This the Sun has been doing for
several thousands of millions of year.
The nuclear energy is released at the Sun's center as high-energy
gamma radiation, a form of electromagnetic radiation like light and
radio waves, only of very much shorter wavelength. This gamma
radiation is absorbed by atoms inside the Sun to be reemitted at
slightly longer wavelengths. This radiation , in its turn is absorbed
and reemitted. As the energy filters through the layers of the solar
interior, it passes through the X-ray part of the spectrum eventually
becoming light. At this stage, it has reached what we call the solar
surface, and can escape into space without being absorbed further by
solar atoms. A very small fraction of the Sun's light and heat is
emitted in such directions that after passing unhindered through
interplanetary space, it hits the Earth.
46.Vision
Human vision like that of other primates has evolved in an arboreal
environment. In the dense complex world of a tropical forest, it is
more important to see well that to develop an acute sense of smell. In
the course of evolution members of the primate line have acquired
large eyes while the snout has shrunk to give the eye an unimpeded
view. Of mammals only humans and some primates enjoy color vision. The
red flag is black to the bull. Horses live in a monochrome world
.light visible to human eyes however occupies only a very narrow band
in the whole electromagnetic spectrum. Ultraviolet rays are invisible
to humans though ants and honeybees are sensitive to them. Humans
though ants and honeybees are sensitive to them. Humans have no direct
perception of infrared rays unlike the rattlesnake which has receptors
tuned into wavelengths longer than 0.7 micron. The world would look
eerily different if human eyes were sensitive to infrared radiation.
Then instead of the darkness of night, we would be able to move easily
in a strange shadowless world where objects glowed with varying
degrees of intensity. But human eyes excel in other ways. They are in
fact remarkably discerning in color gradation. The color sensitivity
of normal human vision is rarely surpassed even by sophisticated
technical devices.
47 Folk Cultures
A folk culture is a small isolated, cohesive, conservative, nearly
self-sufficient group that is homogeneous in custom and race with a
strong family or clan structure and highly developed rituals. Order is
maintained through sanctions based in the religion or family and
interpersonal. Relationships are strong. Tradition is paramount, and
change comes infrequently and slowly. There is relatively little
division of labor into specialized duties. Rather, each person is
expected to perform a great variety of tasks, though duties may differ
between the sexes. Most goods are handmade and subsistence economy
prevails. Individualism is weakly developed in folk cultures as are
social classes. Unaltered folk cultures no longer exist in
industrialized countries such as the United States and Canada. Perhaps
the nearest modern equivalent in Anglo America is the Amish, a German
American farming sect that largely renounces the products and labor
saving devices of
the industrial age. In Amish areas, horse drawn buggies still serve as
a local transportation device and the faithful are not permitted to
own automobiles. The Amish's central religious concept of Demut
"humility", clearly reflects the weakness of individualism and social
class so typical of folk cultures and there is a corresponding
strength of Amish group identity. Rarely do the Amish marry outside
their sect. The religion, a variety of the Mennonite faith, provides
the principal mechanism for maintaining order.
By contrast a popular culture is a large heterogeneous group often
highly individualistic and a pronounced many specialized professions.
Secular institutions of control such as the police and army take the
place of religion and family in maintaining order, and a money-based
economy prevails. Because of these contrasts, "popular" may be viewed
as clearly different from "folk". The popular is replacing the folk in
industrialized countries and in many developing nations. Folk-made
objects give way to their popular equivalent, usually because the
popular item is more quickly or cheaply produced, is easier or time
saving to use or leads more prestige to the owner.
48 Bacteria
Bacteria are extremely small living things. While we measure our own
sizes in inches or centimeters, bacterial size is measured in microns.
One micron is a thousandth of a millimeter: a pinhead is about a
millimeter across. Rod-shaped bacteria are usually from two to four
microns long, while rounded ones are generally one micron in diameter.
Thus if you enlarged a rounded bacterium a thousand times, it would be
just about the size of a pinhead. An adult human magnified by the same
amount would be over a mile(1.6 kilometer) tall.
Even with an ordinary microscope, you must look closely to see
bacteria. Using a magnification of 100 times, one finds that bacteria
are barely visible as tiny rods or dots. One cannot make out anything
of their structure. Using special stains, one can see that some
bacteria have attached to them wavy-looking "hairs" called flagella.
Others have only one flagellum. The flagella rotate, pushing the
bacteria through the water. Many bacteria lack flagella and cannot
move about by their own power, while others can glide along over
surfaces by some little-understood mechanism.
From the bacteria point of view, the world is a very different place
from what it is to humans. To a bacterium water is as thick as
molasses is to us. Bacteria are so small that they are influenced by
the movements of the chemical molecules around them. Bacteria under
the microscope, even those with no flagella, often bounce about in the
water. This is because they collide with the watery molecules and are
pushed this way and that. Molecules move so rapidly that within a
tenth of a second the molecules around a bacteria have all been
replaced by new ones; even bacteria without flagella are thus
constantly exposed to a changing environment.
49 Sleep
Sleet is part of a person's daily activity cycle. There are several
different stages of sleep, and they too occur in cycles. If you are an
average sleeper, your sleep cycle is as follows. When you fist drift
off into slumber, your eyes will roll about a bit, you temperature
will drop slightly, your muscles will relax, and your breathing well
slow and become quite regular. Your brain waves slow and become quite
regular. Your brain waves slow down a bit too, with the alpha rhythm
of rather fast waves 1 sleep. For the next half hour or so, as you
relax more and more, you will drift down through stage 2 and stage 3
sleep. The lower your stage of sleep. slower your brain waves will be.
Then about 40to 69 minutes after you lose consciousness you will have
reached the deepest sleep of all. Your brain will show the large slow
waves that are known as the delta rhythm. This is stage 4 sleep.
You do not remain at this deep fourth stage all night long, but
instead about 80 minutes after you fall into slumber, your brain
activity level will increase again slightly. The delta rhythm will
disappear, to be replaced by the activity pattern of brain waves. Your
eyes will begin to dart around under your closed eyelids as if you
were looking at something occurring in front of you. This period of
rapid eye movement lasts for some 8 to 15 minutes and is called REM
sleep. It is during REM sleep period, your body will soon relax again,
your breathing will slip gently back from stage 1 to stage 4
sleep----only to rise once again to the surface of near consciousness
some 80 minutes later.
50. Cells and Temperature
Cells cannot remain alive outside certain limits of temperature and
much narrower limits mark the boundaries of effective functioning.
Enzyme systems of mammals and birds are most efficient only within a
narrow range around 37C;a departure of a few degrees from this value
seriously impairs their functioning. Even though cells can survive
wider fluctuations the integrated actions of bodily systems are
impaired. Other animals have a wider tolerance for changes of bodily
temperature.
For centuries it has been recognized that mammals and birds differ
from other animals in the way they regulate body temperature. Ways of
characterizing the difference have become more accurate and meaningful
over time, but popular terminology still reflects the old division
into "warm-blooded" and "cold-blooded" species; warm-blooded included
mammals and birds whereas all other creatures were considered
cold-blooded. As more species were studied, it became evident that
this classification was inadequate. A fence lizard or a desert
iguana—each cold-blooded----usually has a body temperature only a
degree or two below that of humans and so is not cold. Therefore the
next distinction was made between animals that maintain a constant
body temperature, called home0therms, and those whose body temperature
varies with their environments, called poikilotherms. But this
classification also proved inadequate, because among mammals there are
many that vary their body temperatures during hibernation.
Furthermore, many invertebrates that live in the depths of the ocean
never experience change in the depths of the ocean never experience
change in the chill of the deep water, and their body temperatures
remain constant.
